Feminism:
Feminism is a concept which varies from individual to individual. The general definition of feminism (according to oxford dictionaries) is the advocacy of women’s rights on the grounds of the equality of the sexes. Today feminism is more than just the demand for equal rights. Feminism has been studied and developed under the name “Feminist Theory”. Rosemarie Tong, a United Sates feminist, suggests that the feminist theory attempts to explain the oppression on women, its causes and effects and to formulate strategies for the liberation of women. It should be noted that it does not in any way promote anti-male sentiments. Feminist theory includes all aspects of woman behavior and circumstances which affect her. Although the word feminism and feminist were not recognized at a large scale the terms were being used in public parlance as early as 1940s. Women were writing and fighting the social norm from as early as the 15th century and that first woman was Christine de Pizan who wrote Epistle to the God of Love. There are three major phases of feminism which are first, second and third waves.
-First wave: The first wave of feminism started in the 19th century and lasted till the early 20th century. This was period of much activity for the equal rights of women in United States of America and United Kingdom. At first the activists were fighting for equal right to property and equal contract and the opposition of ownership of married women and their children by their husbands. Later the in the 19th century the activists were more focused on gaining political power and right to women’s suffrage[i] .
In Britain women were mainly after the right to vote and the movement which demanded for the right to vote is known as the “Suffragist movement” and those who took part in it are called Suffragettes. In 1918 Britain all women over the age of 30 and owning a house had the right to vote but this age limit was reduced and the side condition abolished in 1928 and all women over the age of 21 had the right to vote. This movement was largely that of middle class white women.
–Second Wave: The second wave of feminism started in the 1960s and lasted till 1980s. After the acceptance of equal rights women started focusing on the general discrimination in everyday life. The second wave of feminism still exists today along with the third wave of feminism. Simone de Beauvoir a French writer, thinker and philosopher wrote many books on philosophy, politics, essays and biographical accounts and all of her writings were just before the second wave of feminism. The greatest activist in America during this time was Betty Friedan, it is said she single handedly revived feminism with her book “The Feminine Mystique”. Friedan fought for equal pay, maternity leaves, legal abortions and many other things which horrended the women from time to time. This wave also started protests against “Miss America Pageant” which according to the activists and protesters reduced women to objects of mere beauty and of patriarchy. During this time logos like “The personal is political” became prominent. In the United States “National Organization for Women” was formed the president of which was Betty Friedan. The second wave was more the movement of the women of colour and developing nations with the logo “Women’s Struggle is Class Struggle”.
–Third Wave of Feminism: This third wave of feminism which is the new theory started in the 1990s. The feminist of the third wave are more interested in [ii]micro-politics and questions the concept of the second wave of feminism as to what is right for women and what is not. This third wave is characterized by post-colonial and post-modern thinking. In this phase women have shed the victimized nature and have emerged empowered. The feminists of the third wave do not believe in structure and scientific process as will be explained later under the topic postmodern feminism which became the newest theory under the regime of the third feminist wave. They refuse to believe in artificial categories of identity, gender and sexuality.
There are four problems majorly discussed here:
- The women’s position in and experience of a situation is different from that of men in similar situation.
- Women’s position in most situations is less privileged than men in the same situation.
- Women’s situation is often defined as a direct power relationship between make and female.
- Women are oppressed, that is, dominated, controlled, abused and used by men.
The fourth point is based on the main crux of the third wave of feminism that women face gender inequality and oppression in the class or circle they move in, the extent of it can be varied according to marital status, race, ethnicity and location in the world etc. Three major terms are used to completely simplify the issues faced by women, which are difference, inequality, and oppression. Each of the below mentioned feminist theories are divided into phases but most of them are taken up with the modern concepts and others such as radical feminism which is considered to be an extreme has substantially diminished.
Liberal Feminism:
Liberal Feminism argues that the inequality can be eradicated through social and legal reforms. It is the most widely accepted theory was the first theory to support the entrance and success of the women in the world as individuals and although it plays a minor role in the concept of postmodern feminism or contemporary feminism, it is the most well-known feminist theory among the postmodern feminists of America. It also explains how men are confined to the [iii]public sphere which includes independence, power, money and success and women are confined to [iv]private spheres which include nothing more than unpaid housework, nursing of children and keeping up the servicing of adult men and to add to that children are brought up in such a way that they can take their definite place in one of the two spheres according to their gender. Liberal feminists blame the system which confines each gender to a specific sphere as the cause of inequality. Liberal Feminism suggests the major obstacle in the way of equality is [v]sexism which is similar to racism as it is discriminatory acts towards women due to the orthodox believes about the physicals differences between a man and a woman which suit them according to their social needs. Furthermore girls at a young age are forced into the role so that they may smoothly enter the role of dependency, submissiveness and mindlessness which later causes depression and similar afflictions due to the limitations imposed on women.
According to Jessie Bernard’s “The Future of Marriage” marriage is a sacred and traditional concept serving fulfilment and satisfaction for both the husband and wife by giving them separate roles; husband being independent, authoritarian and being serviced by the wife and the wife being compliant, dependent, managing the household and providing emotional and sexual servicing for the husband and diminishing away from the independent person she was before her marriage. According to the studies carried out on human stress levels, stress levels have been found maximum in married women and unmarried men, whereas, least stress was recoded in married men. Thus, marriage is good for men but not or women and although America provided women with more freedom than some other areas, still, there are prejudices and unequal distribution of opportunities. The concepts carried by time are supported by more than prejudice, traditions and convention.
Liberal feminism started in the 1792 by Mary Wollstonecraft when she wrote “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: With Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects” in which she stresses upon the fact that women should be given equal opportunity at education. Then in the 19th century John Stuart Mill and Harriet Taylor Mill being authors of several writings supported the suffrage movement and while Harriet Taylor believed that a woman should work and raise kids, John Stuart believed that women should be given the same equal economic opportunities and civil liberties as men. It was later promoted by several people, one of the most prominent being Betty Friedan, the first president of NOW (National Organization for Women), she promoted liberal feminism through her books in the 1960s and was the voice of the second wave of feminism. National Women’s Political Caucus, and the Women’s Equity Action League were also found for the further demand of equal civil rights and eradication of discrimination. Though at one point in history liberal feminism was [vi]classist, racist and heterosexist but these concepts were eliminated from the theory with time.
Liberal Feminist proposed the changing of system (participation of women in politics and other areas), organization of family structure, the equal distribution of responsibilities, use of mass media for awareness and encouraging people to fight against sexism.
Radical Feminism:
Radical is a Latin word “radic or radix” meaning root and Radical feminism is used to portray meaning “going to the root”. This theory was given the name radical because it clearly stated that oppression against women cuts across the boundaries of race, class and economic status. There are two beliefs associated with radical feminism, the first is that women are of positive value and influence as women and the second I that women are oppressed violently almost everywhere. Radical feminists see racism, ethnicity, age, caste etc. in the structures of the society through which some people dominate other people. Radical feminism states that the oppression on women is the deepest and most widespread oppression. Oppression on women provided the most basic concept or model for the understanding of all other oppressions in the world. Radical feminism states that the cause of the oppression on women is the social and institutional structures built and contributed solely by men. Radical feminism associates the word [vii]patriarchy with oppression on women. Patriarchy is the oldest structure of dominance, submission and inequality but also the one prevailing in the society even now. It is a tradition which teaches people how to scorn another human being, control them and disregard them as non-human. Patriarchy is a concept among people which produces tyrannical human beings. For radical feminists patriarchy is the least noticed form of oppression but the most noteworthy system of inequality and oppression. The focus of this theory is the violence of man and man dominated organizations against women and the acts of violence are not necessarily acts physical harm but are hidden under an illusion of beauty and fashion; practices of monogamy, chastity and motherhood; sexual harassment at workplace or public places.
The theme of this theory nonetheless remains the relating of patriarchy to violence which includes rape, sexual assault, sex trafficking, sexual abuse, sexual slavery, prostitution, the custom of keeping concubines, the old traditions of foot binding in china, burning of Hindu widows in India, the Padaung neck rings, the scarification in tribes like Hamar, the witch burnings, the stoning to death of adulterer women, discrimination against lesbians, the burying alive of girls at birth or at a young age or simply finding ways to dispose of them. Radical feminism presents us with a bloody and broken vision of what patriarchy does. Liberal feminists believe that men hold the most basic force for dominance which is physical strength and it is only a matter of setting up a patriarchal system after that other matters such as economic, social and political can be laid down accordingly. Physical abuse against women is the last resource or a drastic measure against women who resist or speak against patriarchy. They also believe that men do not dominate women just because they simply have the resources for it but also because women are essential to the sexual and emotional satisfaction of men and for reproduction. Radical feminism not only explains the universal oppression against women but also explains the variations across different cultures
They believed that if the male based system and the social structure dominated by patriarchy and its rules are not changed and reformed the society can never be free from inequality and oppression of women which can be brought about by the education and reformation of women and their thinking for the reconstruction of their self-image as independent, strong and shedding the patriarchal pressure and dependence. Some other thoughts or theories included in radical feminism is that men are enabled and motivated to take power over women because of their role in reproduction, thus the most effective way to break free is to refuse to reproduce. This theory was especially prominent from 1967-1975 but it is no longer as accepted as it was in the late 1960s. Although radical feminism seems a bit rigid, radical feminist have done a considerable amount of research to support their claims.
With time several sub-types of radical feminism have evolved:
Cultural Feminism: It brings forth the concept that the essence of woman is important for the society. The biological difference between men and women and the fact that men possess greater physical strength as compared to women was used as an excuse to deem that women are inferior and compliant as compared to men. Thus, this theory states that there are obvious psychological differences between a male and female and female not only being different is also superior to man. Their main aim is to improve the relationship between sexes by maintaining that the culture discussed is too masculine and needs the female perspective and that a woman’s way is always best. A woman is more caring, pacific, non-violent and other traits which are present in a woman due to her role as a mother. Cultural feminists focus more on the promotion of the values and virtues of women rather than explaining its origin.
Separatist Feminism: Separatist feminists believe that the sexual differences between men and women cannot be resolved, thus, they do not support heterosexual relationships. Separatist Feminists believe that men cannot make constructive contributions to the feminist movement and even those who try to do only replicate patriarchal behavior. Marilyn Frye a separatist feminist writes “separation of various sorts or modes from men and from institutions, relationships, roles and activities that are male-defined, male-dominated, and operating for the benefit of males and the maintenance of male privilege – this separation being initiated or maintained, at will, by women.”
Marxian Feminism and Socialist Feminism:
According to Rosemarie Tong “Although it is possible to distinguish between Marxist and socialist feminist thought, it is quite difficult to do so. Over the years, I have become convinced that the differences between these two schools of thought are more a matter of emphasis than of substance. Classical Marxist feminists work within the conceptual terrain laid out by Marx, Engels, Lenin, and other nineteenth-century thinkers. They regard classism rather than sexism as the fundamental cause of women’s oppression. In contrast, socialist feminists are not certain that classism is women’s worst or only enemy.”
Marxian Theory:
Marxist feminists are those who support the philosophies and theories of Karl Marx. The theory of Marxian Feminism is one of the most elaborate theories on feminism. It began with the initial theory of [viii]Karl Marx and [ix]Fredrick Engels and later was expanded with neo-Marxian theories and it suggests that the main reason of oppression is the social class system which brings forth the social class oppression. Marxian theory focuses on the working class which dominates as compared to the ruling class. Marxian feminism while acknowledging the fact of oppression on women suggests that the main cause of the overall oppression is the [x]capitalist regime and if this system is overthrown then the oppression faced by women and others will automatically disappear. Marxian feminists combine the Marxian theories and the public protest for the rights of women. While the theme of the Marxian theory presented by Marx and Engels was mainly focused on the social-class oppression but later it was moved to gender oppression, this transition to gender oppression is extensively discussed in the book “The Origins of Family, Private, Property and the State”. In this book it is stated that:
- The suppression on women is not due to the biological difference between men and women but due to the system of the society laid down in such a way that others are dominated. The system, the history of which can be traced through time and can clearly be altered.
- The submissive role of woman lies in the rigid institution of marriage. A traditional marriage centers on a couple of the opposite sex and their offspring living together under the same roof. This family unit is patrilineal with the male member being the head of the household and holding dominance and having greater sexual freedom than women, whereas women are allowed sexual relations only with her husband which in other words is the concept of monogamy applied to only the women. Living in the circle of such an institution women, especially middle class women, they neither possess any type of independence and nor do they hold any type of job to earn money for themselves. Thus, women become possessions of their husbands.
- Primitive Communism: This is a term coined by Marx and Engels which describes the prehistoric social system. It states that the current family structure of the complex contemporary society is false to claim that this family structure resides in all cultures of the world. According to this concept, in prehistory there were no individual family units but instead there were kin networks called gens. This system was matriarchal and the lineage was traced through the mother because the genetic link is easily and clearly identified through the mother rather than the father. In the matriarchal system, significant power rested in the hands of the women who were in those primitive times of hunting were gatherers and distributers and were also responsible for storage and crafting.
- After studying the documents of old anthropologists and came to the conclusion that oppression on women started from pre-history when communal societies became individually rich and started to own private property which then lead to colonialism. It started with the advent of agriculture when the concept of owning and looking after private property for economic production from their own resources. Thus, man needed an adequate and compliant work force whether it be in the form of slaves, wives, children or servants and hence came the concept of an heir to which they may pass on their property to and the concept of a “familia” was established. A system in which the master claims dominance over all those under him and to being the sole sexual partner of his wives and the assurance of the birth of his heir, an heir who will continue the traditional oppression.
- Over a period of time this misuse of labor only increased the concept of domination on other people. The political system according to Marx and Engels was established to safeguard this domination. Marx and Engels thought that the very first step for the liberation of women should be their inductance into paid labor and the destruction of property rights.
This theory has been challenged by archeologists and anthropologists on the question of evidence and the feminists have criticized it for its lack of the full comprehension of the oppression on women. But by tracing the history of the oppression on women and identifying the family institution as the basic unit of this oppression, this is the most powerful sociological theory on gender inequality.
Contemporary Marxian Feminism:
Contemporary Marxian Feminism goes into the depth of the structure provided by the Marxian Feminism, that is, it looks into the structure within the capitalist class system. Contemporary theory divides women into two sects, bourgeoisie women and working class women. Contemporary Marxian feminists suggest that women of different class background as compared to the men have less interaction with them as compared to women who are of the same class. This suggests that gender issue is only second to the issue of the division into classes in the capitalistic regime. A simple example of it is the fact that bourgeois women who are considerably hostile towards the women of working or class lower than themselves show an overlap of interests and experiences between themselves and the men of wealth and status. Thus, this theory maintains that women are less privileged than the men of their class regardless of the class they belong to. Furthermore, this system of capitalism is more prominent among the bourgeoisie. The bourgeois men are well settled into the public spheres and are a large part of the economic sector, whereas, bourgeois women are nothing more than property to these men. Bourgeois women are up to a point perfect in their physical attributes and are often used as objects to show off the power and wealth of bourgeois men. They are also at point used to close business deals or contracts. These women are given a luxurious, care-free lifestyle in exchange that they give birth to and train the sons who will one day inherit their position and status. Now, gender inequality in the working class is also because of the capitalist regime. These women are working because of their low social standing and poor economic conditions and because of their sense of [xi]marginality of the wage sector; it is difficult to [xii]unionize these women. Due to this marginality women form an important part of the cheap work force but this insignificance of women to the wage sector is a threat to the wage demands of the unionized male workers. Women further help make bourgeois men make more profit by using the resources and apparently diminishing the costs of care giving and reproduction.
Thus, inequality between men and women exist not because of any bias or differences in thought but simply because of the capitalistic regime which divided the people into class. This theory does not provide any real structure but as presented by Engels it simply provides a layover through history.
Socialist Feminism:
Socialist feminism is an overlapping combination of Marxian and Radical feminism with the hint of [xiii]humanistic theories. This theory has three ground principles:
- All forms of oppression should be explored and their causes be identified which can be extracted from the most basic oppression: oppression on women.
- New and improved methods should be developed for the improvement in the analytical aspects of social study.
- The concept or ideas presented by women should be considered the same as material production in the decisions of human affairs.
Socialist Feminism being an overlap of two major feminist theories has taken one step ahead by forming the [xiv]synthesis of these theories. Due to the mixture of two theories socialist feminists have been divided into two distinct groups. One group focuses solely on the oppression and gender inequality faced by women and to do that socialist feminism brings about a synthesis of Marxian theory and the concept of Radical feminism. Socialist feminism describes a term “Capitalistic Patriarchy” Capitalistic regime from the Marxian theory and patriarchy from radical Feminism. The other sect of the social feminists focus and research on all kind of oppressions by studying the hierarchy of class and gender so that the system of oppression based on gender, ethnicity, race and other attributes can be understood. The most frequently used term by these feminists is the word “Domination”. But still in both these sects the oppression on women remains the primary topic under observation, the “domination” feminists can study closely the variations in oppression. Women’s location and experience brings forth an essential vantage point on all types of domination. For example, how some women who are oppressed tend to further oppress other women, for example, bourgeois women may oppress working class women in prejudice and bias. Both sects focus on the capitalistic patriarchy which is closely linked with the “historical materialism” a term defined in detail in Marxian Feminism. The human conditions, their psyche, behavior, ideas, change over time because of their dynamic nature and the fact that history is a record of these changes from pre-historic times to the present. To understand the concept better socialist feminists suggest the tracking and understanding of historic trails which are linked to the behavior of human beings to better understand the oppression which persists. While socialist feminism is somewhat similar to Marxian feminism there are a few differences which set them apart.
- Where Marxian Feminists use the term material conditions to signify wealth and economic conditions, socialist feminists on the other hand use this same term in the broader sense which includes not only the economic conditions but also sexuality, child bearing, nursing, home maintenance and other similar conditions which affect the human life.
- Socialist feminists in their theory of historical materialism believe that all types of physical aspects influence the ideas and concepts of man, for example, knowledge, motivation, consciousness etc.
- Socialist feminists not only focus on gender inequality but a large scope of social inequalities. Socialist feminists draw up a structure in which policies, ideology and economy interact with the private sphere of the human beings.
Psychoanalytic Feminism:
Psychoanalytic feminism is a theory of feminism which suggests that men have an inherent psychological need to overpower women. The cause of men’s compulsion to dominate women and women’s little resistance to this subjugation lies deep within the human psyche. Unlike feminist theories discussed above psychoanalytical feminists believe that the identity of women as women and their thought process was deep rooted in their psyche. Psychoanalytic feminists work with a certain theory of patriarchy in which men dominate women and this domination or oppression has withstood the test of time. They also believe that all men similar in their action work and sustain and women similar in their action rarely resist and are working their part in the subordination. The main focus of these feminists is that why men are adamant on dominating and maintaining a patriarchal regime while women lack the determination to oppose that patriarchy. The search for the explanation brought up arguments which consist of the fact that a system of reasoning which produces practical benefits is adequate for male support of patriarchy but due to the psyche of humans to second-guess, men may not always and everywhere is certain that patriarchy is of definite value to them. Similarly an argument grown out of self-interest will insist the women to take a stand against patriarchy. This is where theories by Freud are presented which look at that side of the human psyche in which emotions and desires, fears, pathology and neurosis are embedded. Freud’s theories present the underlying psyche of an individual which cannot be easily assessed by the conscious mind. Thus, Psychoanalytic feminists believe two reasons to be behind the oppression and male domination 1. Socio-economic environment 2. Fear of death. These feminists believe in better understanding of the human psyche so as to free the women from the oppression they face. Firstly, the identity of being male or female is rooted in the childhood experiences which shape that identity and gender inequity. There are two phases of childhood development, the first discusses the tension between individuality and the desire to be recognized and secondly infants and children experience the most important part of their childhood in a close and continuous relationship with a woman i.e. mother or substitute mother. A child feels the most basic and primitive of the emotions which include love, anger, fear, rage, desire etc. These experiences remain with a person within their subconscious mind all their life. A boy raised in a male dominated environment then he will separate himself from his mother in an identity to be superior to women and if a girl is brought up in a male dominated society she will grow up to doubt herself. Psychoanalytical feminists also believe that if children are brought up in a non-patriarchal environment and both are treated equal and given equal opportunities since childhood then the problem of oppression and inequality will vanish entirely. Secondly, fear of death the eradication of one’s existence entirely is a concern everyone faces at some point in their life and while confronting this concept of disappearance everyone feels terror. Psychoanalytic feminists believe that women due to their role in the creation of new life are far less pressed with the issue of mortality than men. Men according to this theory fear the extinction that might follow, thus, their domination over women and their love for things which will last longer than they will which are material things such as science and architecture. Men driven by their desire for immortality and their envy of women’s reproductive role and to dominate women and claim women as their own and lay own the rules of legitimacy for the children. The theory that gender identity was shaped by childhood experiences was given by Sigmund Freud who was not a feminist in any way but was a neurologist and is also known as the father of “Psychoanalysis”. Even though Freud was not a feminist but the psychoanalytical feminists read his theories and came to the conclusion of reforming the social structure and to nip the problem in the bud. There are two major schools of thought of Psychoanalytical feminism one is Freud school of thought and the second is the Lacanian school of thought. The difference between Freud and Lacanian is that the former are mostly Anglo-American and their prior concern is the patriarchy in any society and the later that are mostly French are more concerned with the analysis of gender identity and linguistics. Psychoanalytic Feminism has developed from cultural feminism which tries to understand the relationship of men and women to better understand the role of women in society. Psychoanalytic feminist concentrate on the early development phase of children usually, before the age of three.
Men’s Feminism:
As both men and women make up a society, it is unlikely that the protest or demand of one will not affect the other. In each of the three historic waves of feminism men played a significant role and their responses in each wave varied from being pro-feminist to [xv]masculinism to anti-feminist. Some feminist writers believe that standing up for equal rights for a woman is the strongest stand that can be taken by a man and that men should be encouraged to participate in feminist and some feminist writers believe that men cannot be feminists by nature because they are privileged and cannot understand the hardship endured by women.
Men’s feminism can also be categorized as pro-feminism which states that a person is in favor of feminism without being part of the feminist movement. This term is broadly used for men who are in favor or support feminism. Since the start of the feminist movements a number of men have actively been pro-feminist, for example, Jeremy Bentham a philosopher demanded equal rights for women in the 18th century, similarly, John Stuart Mill as discussed above wrote in favor of the feminist movement and took active part in presenting and supporting petitions in favor of women; many other men have supported and actively worked or the equality of women. In the current 21st century new responses from men have come forward especially male scholars in field of gender studies. Fidelma Ashe was the scholar who touched the subject of men and feminism. The latest writing upon this subject is of Shira Tarrant (California State University Professor) who in her book “Men and Feminism” has discussed how mean can play active role in preventing violence and sexual assault against women. Men who support feminism help by teaching or educating boys and men against violence, sexual assault and domestic abuse against women and sometimes this work is done with the help or collaboration of women.
Postmodern Feminism:
Postmodern feminism is based on postmodern theory which indicates that there is no specific meaning to things but the meaning created by humans themselves. Postmodern feminists like all feminists criticize the dominance of men in society and the concept of patriarchy. Postmodern feminists reject the concept of [xvi]essentialism and are strong supporters of multiple truths, realities and roles or in other words a diverse sense of thought. Scientific knowledge or methodology cannot lead to complete and accurate knowledge. They also believe that being in the present time is what matters and that past should not be looked upon. Most postmodern feminists do not label themselves as feminists. Postmodern feminists also believe that gender roles are formed by the social structure of a society and it cannot be generalized over cultures and histories. Judith Butler advocates that gender identity is constructed through language. Postmodern feminism is said to may have originated from the arguments presented by Judith Butler and Mary Joe Frug. In their writings they argue that the identity of a separate sex is developed through language, whereas, Frug writes that the human experience very well lies “inescapably within language.” According to Frug sex is not something that can be defined or can be thought of as natural, sex is an identity formed through linguistics. Thus, sex is something formed from the rules and regulations set by man himself and does not exist otherwise.
Some Other Forms of Feminism:
Ecofeminism: It is the combination of feminism and environmentalism. The ecofeminists propose that oppression of women and degradation of environment are interrelated, they are also concerned with racism and similar concepts which promote inequality.
Black Feminism: The black women argued that sexism and racism are closely linked and that if they were given equality and freedom not only will sexism vanish but also racism.
Standpoint Feminism: Standpoint feminist argue that feminism should study how racism, classism, homophobia and other similar problems relate with female oppression.
Riot Grrrl Movement: It is a riot punk movement which started in the 1990s along with the third wave movement. They took stance of self-reliance and self-sufficiency.
Anti-feminism: It is the opposition to feminism whether it is one form of it or all forms. Those who are against any type of feminism are called anti-feminist.
[i] Woman’s right to vote
[ii] Micropolitics refers to small-scale interventions that are used for governing the behavior of large populations of people
[iii] The public sphere (German: Öffentlichkeit) is an area in social life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence political action.
[iv] The private sphere is the complement or opposite to the public sphere. The private sphere is a certain sector of societal life in which an individual enjoys a degree of authority, unhampered by interventions from governmental or other institutions.
[v] prejudice or discrimination based on sex; especially : discrimination against women -Merriam-Webster
[vi] Classism is differential treatment based on social class or perceived social class. – classism.org
[vii] Social organization marked by the supremacy of the father in the clan or family, the legal dependence of wives and children, and the reckoning of descent and inheritance in the male line. –Merriam-Webster
[viii] Karl Marx was a philosopher, economist, sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist.- Wikipedia
[ix] founder of Marxist theory along with Karl Marx
[x] An economic and political system in which a country’s trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state. -Google
[xi] treat (a person, group, or concept) as insignificant or peripheral. -Google
[xii] (of workers or their workplace) belonging to, or having workers belonging to, a trade union. -Google
[xiii] Phenomenological or Humanistic Theories: According to the Phenomenological approach to personality, the specific ways each person perceives and interprets the world make up personality and guide behavior
Phenomenological theorists emphasize that each person actively constructs her or his own world.
[xiv] In general, the noun synthesis (from the ancient Greek σύνθεσις, σύν “with” and θέσις “placing”) refers to a combination of two or more entities that together form something new; alternately, it refers to the creating of something by artificial means. -Wikipedia
[xv] Masculism (or masculinism) is political, cultural, and economic movements which aim to establish and defend political, economic, and social rights and participation in society for men and boys. -Wikipedia
[xvi] A belief that things have a set of characteristics that make them what they are -Google